Music and audio
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Music Score
Musical scores are not specifically discussed in the manual in relation to author-date citations, however it does mention that they should generally be treated as books. Our librarians suggest the following, however we advise that you check with your subject guideline or tutor for recommended format.
For more information refer to Chicago Manual of Style (14.255) or Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations - eighth edition (19.10.4.3).
Entry in reference list
Composer Surname, First name. Year of publication. Title of Work. Place of publication: Publisher.
For example - reference list
Stravinsky, Igor. 1975. Rite of Spring. London: Hansen House.
If the score is part of a collection or anthology:
Schwartz, Stephen. 2011. "All For the Best". In Godspell: Vocal Selections. Rev. ed. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard.
For example - in text citation
... appears in Rite of Spring (Stravinsky, 22)...
OR
Schwartz (2011) referenced this theme...
Style notes
- See Manual 14.255 and Turabian 19.10.4.3.
- Published musical scores are treated in the same way as books. Additional information such as an editor's name or additional writers may be included where relevant (see Manual 14.104).
- Many musical works are known by their generic names, such as 'Symphony no. 1' or 'Sonata in A major', while some have descriptive or popular names (such as 'Eroica' or Danse Macabre). See Manual 8.194, 8.195 and Turabian 22.3.2 for guidance on whether titles should be italicised, in quotation marks or neither.
- Specify the edition if it is not the first edition.
- In the reference list, invert the name of the first composer only.
- When citing a particular passage, include the page number/s in the in-text citation. Place a comma between the year and page number/s.
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Sound recording
Entry in reference list
Composer/Performer. Year. Title of Recording. Label & Publisher number, format.
For example - reference list
Pink Floyd. 1998. Delicate Sound of Thunder. CBS 4631612, compact disc.
For example - in text citation
... on the album Delicate Sound of Thunder (Pink Floyd 1998).
Pink Floyd (1998) demonstrates this effect by ....
Style notes
- See Manual 15.57 and Turabian 19.10.3.4
- Italicise the official title of the album, but individual track titles should be included in quotation marks (Manual 8.197).
- If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
- Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
- For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalog or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
- Sound recordings should be grouped under an appropriate subheading in the bibliography (see Chicago Manual, chapter 14.263 and 14.63).
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Sound recording: Downloaded audio file
Entry in reference list
Composer/Performer. Year. Title of Recording. Label & Publisher number, format. Source of file/URL.
For example - reference list
Glass, Philip. 2018. The Hours/Distant Figure. Anton Batagov (piano). Orange Mountain Music, MP3 audio. iTunes.
For example - in text citation
Glass (2018) employs the technique....
… when used in this way (Glass 2018).
Style notes
- See Manual 15.57 and Turabian 19.10.3.4.
- Italicise the official title of the album, but individual track titles should be included in quotation marks (Manual 8.197).
- If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
- Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
- Include the name of the download service as part of the citation. If a separate URL can be determined from the source, include that at the end.
- For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalogue or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
- Sound recordings should be grouped under an appropriate subheading in the bibliography (see Chicago Manual, chapter 14.263 and 14.63).
- For digital reissues, include the date of the original recording and the reissue date as well. See Manual 15.57.
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Sound recording: Streamed online
Entry in reference list
Composer/Performer. Year. “Track Title”. Track number on Title of Recording. Label & Publisher number, streaming service. URL (if available).
For example - reference list
Davis, Miles. 1959. “So What”. Track 1 on Kind of Blue. Columbia CL 1355, Spotify.
https://open.spotify.com/track/4vLYewWIvqHfKtJDk8c8tq.Williams, John. Star Wars, Episode IV, "A New Hope" (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack). 2004. London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by John Williams. Sony Classical 8279692795021, Naxos Music Library.
For example - in text citation
... on the album Kind of Blue (Davis 1959).
...Williams' use of the Eb clarinet in the soundtrack to Star Wars (2004).
Style notes
- See Manual 15.57 and Turabian 19.10.3.4.
- Italicise the official title of the album, but individual track titles should be included in quotation marks (Manual 8.197).
- If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
- Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
- Include the name of the streaming service as part of the citation. If a separate URL can be determined from the source, include that at the end.
- For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalogue or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
- Sound recordings should be grouped under an appropriate subheading in the bibliography (see Chicago Manual, chapter 14.263 and 14.63).
- For digital reissues, include the date of the original recording and the reissue date as well. See Manual 15.57.
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Radio program
Entry in reference list
Title. Year. "Title of segment." Presenter. Aired date, on Network.
OR
Title. Year. Interview subject, interview by Host. Date of publication or access, URL.
For example - reference list
Music in Time. 2018. "Federation." Joel Carnegie. Aired November 26, 2018. ABC Classic FM.
OR
Roots 'N All. 2018. Meg Mac, interview by Nkechi Anele. April 16, 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/roots-n-all/megmac-asos-extend-iv/9671950.
For example - in text citation
In preparing for her interview with Meg Mac (Roots ‘N All 2018) …
Joel Carnegie (2018) prepares by…
Style notes
- See Manual 14.261 and 14.265. See also Turabian 17.8.3.2.
- The order of the citation elements may depend on the nature of the resource and on what the focus of the citation is (i.e. you may cite the host's name first if their work is your primary focus).
- Any facts relevant to identifying the item should be included (i.e. additional writers, actors, producers). See above links for examples.
- Segment titles should appear in quotation marks. Names of interview subjects should just appear in roman text.
- Reference list entries are usually listed by title (see Turabian 17.8.3.2).
- For recordings accessed online, if there is no date of production or broadcast provided, you should include an access date prior to the URL (Manual 14.12).
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Podcast
Entry in reference list
Surname of host, First name. Year. "Title of Episode". Date posted/broadcast. In Title of Podcast. Additional Information. Podcast, MP3 audio, duration. URL/source of download.
For example - reference list
Fidler, Richard. 2018. "Robert Connolly's Audacious Film Adaptation of Tim Winton's 'The Turning'." September 20, 2018. In Conversations. Interview by Richard Fidler. Podcast, MP3 audio, 50:55. https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/conversations/robert-connollys-audacious-film-adaption-of-tim-wintons-the-turn/7755452.
OR
Mars, Roman. 2015. "All In Your Head." June 10, 2015. In 99% Invisible. Episode produced by Hrishikesh Hirway. Podcast, MP3 audio, 36:34. iTunes.
For example - in text citation
Fidler and Connolly (2018) discuss the relevance of ...
OR
... is important when considering the elements of sound design in context (Mars 2015).
Style notes
- See Manual 15.57, 14.267 and Turabian 19.10.3.3.
- If relevant, you may include the time at which the cited material appears in the in text citation (ie. Mars 2015, 2:37).
- A podcast or series title should be italicised. An individual podcast episode should be placed in quotation marks (see Manual 8.189)
- Use a permanent URL wherever available, otherwise list the source of the download.
- If no date can be determined from the source, include an access date.
- If the material is a recording of a performance, or is a digitised version of pre-existing material, you should also include information about the original source. The order of these entries may depend on the information available.
- Include the creator's name exactly as given, even if it is not their real name. A real name may be included in brackets if desirable. Where actual names are used, invert the names of the first named person only in reference list.
- Different sources will provide more or less information about the item. Any facts relevant to identifying the item should be included, for example the name of a YouTube channel or where and when it was recorded.
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Online music score
Musical scores are not specifically discussed in the manual in relation to author-date citations, however it does mention that they should generally be treated as books. Our librarians suggest the following, however we advise that you check with your subject guideline or tutor for recommended format.
For more information refer to Chicago Manual of Style (14.255) or Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations - eighth edition (19.10.4.3).
Entry in reference list
Composer (Surname, First name). Year. Title of Work. Edited by Editor. Place of publication: Publisher. URL/DOI/Database name.
For example - reference list
Mussorgsky, Modest. 1939. "Reverie" in Complete Collected Works. Edited by Pavel Lamm. Moscow: Muzgiz. https://imslp.org/wiki/Reverie_(Mussorgsky%2C_Modest).
OR
Frasch, Heather. 2011. Collage. Paris: BabelScores. BabelScores Contemporary Music Online.
For example - in text citation
... the treatment of the melody (Mussorgsky 1939) …
Frasch (2011) prepares us for the climax of her work by…
Style notes
- Online music scores are treated in the same way as electronic books. The URL/DOI should be the last part of the full citation. See Manual 14.159, 14.160 and 14.161.
- Many musical works are known by their generic names, such as 'Symphony no. 1' or 'Sonata in A major', while some have descriptive or popular names (such as 'Eroica' or Danse Macabre). See Manual 8.194, 8.195 and Turabian 22.3.2 for guidance on whether titles should be italicised, in quotation marks or neither.
- Sometimes a suitable URL is not available, or is only for subscribers of the database. In these cases it is appropriate to just include the database name (i.e. BabelScores) (Manual 14.161).
- Include an editor's name wherever possible. This helps identify particular versions of a work.
- Any facts relevant to identifying the item should be included. It is not appropriate to just include the URL.
- DOI stands for 'digital object identifier' and provides a permanent and stable link to a resource. Use this in place of a URL where it exists.
- If no date can be determined from the source, include the date the material was last accessed.
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Musical examples
Musical examples may be included to support a point in your essay. They must be incorporated into the text and include:
- An example number,
- A caption identifying where it is from, and
- An accompanying reference list entry (and in-text citation as appropriate) indicating where the excerpt has been taken from.
All examples must include clefs, key and time signatures, instrumentation and bar numbers.
Example and caption
Captions are generally placed above the example rather than below. See Figure 3.5 in the Chicago Manual for an example.
Example [number]. Composer Surname, “Title of individual piece or section”, from Title of Work, Bar numbers of excerpt.
For example - caption
Example 5. Debussy, “Prelude III”, from Preludes for Piano: Book 1, Bars 1-4.
OR
Example 8. Lim, Anactoria: For Six Percussionists, Bars 7-8.
Examples as they would appear in the text
Entry in reference list
Each musical example must have an accompanying reference list entry indicating where the example was taken from.
Composer Surname, First name. Year of publication. Title of volume or work. Edited by Editor name. Place of publication: Publisher.
For example - reference list
Debussy, Claude. 1969. Preludes for Piano: Book 1. Edited by Roy Shepherd. Melbourne: Allans Music Australia.
OR
Lim, Liza. 1998. Anactoria: For Six Percussionists. Milan, Italy: Ricordi.
For example - in-text citation
It is appropriate to include an in-text citation in your text wherever you refer to a musical example.
Example 5 shows this in the first four bars of Debussy’s “Prelude III” (1969).
OR
Debussy (1969) shows this in the first four bars of “Prelude III” (see Example 5).
OR
This technique can be seen in Example 7 (Lim, 1998).
Style notes
- Published musical scores are treated in the same way you would treat a book. See Manual 14.255.
- Where possible, you should take examples from the complete scores or collected editions. If you use an example from a secondary source (ie. from another article or book), you should include the secondary source in your citations and reference list.
- Captions should be placed above the musical example and include an example or figure number.
- Examples should be discussed within the text and be referred to by their number.
- Examples should be placed as closely as possible to the paragraph in which they are discussed.
- More information on how to incorporate music examples into your writing can be found in the Incorporating Music Examples resource form Academic Skills.
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Liner notes
The citation of liner notes accompanying audio recordings is not dealt with comprehensively in the Chicago Manual of Style, apart from a brief note in the Q&A section. The following guidance incorporates this advice but also includes some interpretation based on examples provided for sound recordings and supplementary information.
Entry in reference list
No author
Composer/Performer. Year. Title of recording. Label & publisher number. Format. Liner notes.
With an author
Author (surname, given name). Year. [Liner notes to] Composer/Performer. Title of recording. Label & publisher number. Format.
For example - reference list
No author
Idea of North. 2006. The Gospel Project. Magnetic Records 934 128-4. Compact disc. Liner notes.
With an author
Cairns, David. 2019. Liner notes to Hector Berlioz. The Complete Works. Warner Classics 190295519414. Compact disc.
For example - in text citation
Discussing the technique employed (Cairns 2019)...
In the liner notes to their album The Gospel Project (Idea of North, 2006)...
Style notes
- See this brief note in the Chicago Manual Q&A section, and Manual 14.263. Please check with your lecturer if you are unsure of how to deal with citation of liner notes.
- Where liner notes are unsigned (no attributed author), simply include 'Liner notes' at the end of the citation. Where there is a named author, you may cite them by the name of the author.
- If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
- Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
- For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalog or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
- If the notes are titled, include the title in quotation marks after the author's name.
- Publisher numbers can be found on the CD liner notes or track listing.
Chicago style has both an author-date system and a notes and bibliography system. This guide refers to the author-date system.
There are two key components:
- In-text references.
- A reference list that corresponds to the in-text references.
For more information refer to Chicago Manual of Style (online) or you can borrow a copy from the library.
Before writing your list of references, check with your tutor or lecturer for the bibliographic style preferred by the School or Department.
In-text references
In-text citations are given in brackets, and include the author’s surname and the publication date. There is no punctuation between these elements. A page number or other location information may be added after these elements, separated by a comma.
Reference list
In a reference list entry the elements are separated by full stops.
The first-listed author’s name, according to which the entry is alphabetised in the reference list, is inverted (last name first).
Where there are four to ten authors, the in-text reference should give the name of the first author only, followed by ‘et al.’ The reference list entry should include the names of all the authors. See 14.76 and 15.9.
If there are more than ten authors, list the first seven in the reference list, followed by 'et al.' See 14.76.
Titles are capitalised headline-style (all major words).
Titles of larger works (e.g., books, journals and websites) are italicised.
Titles of smaller works (e.g., chapters, articles and web pages) or unpublished works are enclosed in quotation marks and not italicised.
For books, specify the edition for all editions other than the first.
Do not include personal communications, such as letters or informal emails, in the reference list.
These should appear only in the in-text references.
Secondary citations ("quoted in" or "cited in")
The Chicago Manual of Style advises against citations taken from secondary sources (i.e. “quoted in” or “cited in”), as you are expected to have read the sources you use. If an original source is unavailable, both sources must be identified in-text, but only the secondary source is listed in the Reference List.
In-text
Mention the original author and date in your text, but cite the secondary source in brackets, using “quoted in” or cited in”. For example:
In Sutherland’s article “The Existential Albatross” from the February 2014 issue of Ornithological Metaphor, (cited in Costello 1981)…
Reference List
In your reference list, cite the secondary source. For example:
Costello, Bonnie. 1981. Marianne Moore: Imaginary Possessions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
If unsure please ask your lecturer or tutor for further advice.
For more information refer to Chicago Manual of Style (15.56).
Abbreviations
Acceptable abbreviations in the reference list for parts of books and other publications include:
| chap. or ch. | chapter |
| ed. | edition |
| et al. | and others |
| rev. ed. | revised edition |
| 2nd ed. | second edition |
| ed. (eds) | editor (editors) |
| trans. | translator(s) |
| n.d. | no date |
| vol. | volume (as in vol. 4) |
| vols | volumes (as in 4 vols.) |
| no. | number |
| suppl. | supplement |
| s.v. | under the word |
Specific Reference Types
Books
Specify the edition if it is not the first edition.
In the reference list, works without an author should appear alphabetically by the main word of the title (ignore ‘the’, ‘a’ and ‘an’).
No page numbers are given for books.
Give beginning and ending page numbers for book chapters.
Do not use ‘p’ or ‘pp’ before the page numbers.
Editor's names should be followed with the abbreviation ed. (or eds.).
Use the same format where there is a translator or compiler instead of an editor.
For online books include the DOI (or URL) as the last part of the citation and refer to section headings in lieu of page numbers.
Published musical scores are treated in the same way as books.
Journals
Include both article title and subtitle, regardless of length.
In the reference list, give the start and end pages of the article.
Do not use ‘p’ or ‘pp’ before the page numbers.
In-text, cite specific pages (unless you are referring to the whole article).
If a journal is paginated consecutively across a volume or if the month or season appears with the year, the issue number may be omitted.
For online articles that have not been assigned a DOI include a URL. Note that DOI is lowercased and followed by a colon (with no space after) in source citations.
Access dates are not required by Chicago in citations of formally published electronic sources (see Chicago Manual of Style, Ch.14.12). If an access date is required (by publisher or discipline) they should immediately precede the URL, separated from the surrounding citation by commas in a note and periods in a reference list entry.
Newspapers
If there is no article title, give the article type (not in quotation marks). For example: Obituary, Editorial. Omit ‘The’ from newspaper titles.
Add a city name if the newspaper is not well known e.g. Examiner (Launceston).
Page numbers are usually omitted.
Details of the edition can be added to a reference list entry. For example: final edition, Midwest edition.
If the paper is published in several sections, the section number or name may be given. To cite an article consulted online, include the URL.
Electronic sources
A web page is any one of the “pages,” or subdocuments, that make up a website.
A blog is a category of website that includes dated entries and dated comments.
Blog titles should be italicised; titles of blog entries (analogous to articles in a periodical) should be in quotation marks.
Include the title of the web page, the title of the website (or a description), the author of the content and/or the owner (sponsor) of the site, and a URL.
Include a publication date (or date of modification/revision). If no such date can be found, include an access date. Precede date of modification or access with 'last modified' and 'accessed' respectively.
If a website refers to themselves by their domain name (which is case sensitive), shorten and capitalise it in a logical way (e.g., www.google.com becomes Google).
Citations of website content are usually only included in the text and the notes, not in the reference list.
Audio-visual
Episodes and indexed scenes are treated like chapters. Sound recordings should be grouped under an appropriate subheading in the reference list (see 14.263).
Further Information
For more information and examples not covered here, refer to Chicago Manual of Style 17th ed. chapter 15.
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