Music and audio

Musical scores are not specifically discussed in the manual in relation to author-date citations, however it does mention that they should generally be treated as books. Our librarians suggest the following, however we advise that you check with your subject guideline or tutor for recommended format.

For more information refer to Chicago Manual of Style (14.255) or Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations - eighth edition (19.10.4.3).

Example - in text citation

... appears in Rite of Spring (Stravinsky, 22)...

OR

Schwartz (2011) referenced this theme...

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Composer Surname, First name. Year of publication. Title of Work. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example - reference list

Stravinsky, Igor. 1975. Rite of Spring. London: Hansen House.

If the score is part of a collection or anthology:

Schwartz, Stephen. 2011. "All For the Best". In Godspell: Vocal Selections. Rev. ed. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard.

Style notes for this reference type

• See Manual 14.255 and Turabian 19.10.4.3.
• Published musical scores are treated in the same way as books. Additional information such as an editor's name or additional writers may be included where relevant (see Manual 14.104).
• Many musical works are known by their generic names, such as 'Symphony no. 1' or 'Sonata in A major', while some have descriptive or popular names (such as 'Eroica' or Danse Macabre). See Manual 8.194, 8.195 and Turabian 22.3.2 for guidance on whether titles should be italicised, in quotation marks or neither.
• Specify the edition if it is not the first edition.
• In the reference list, invert the name of the first composer only.
• When citing a particular passage, include the page number/s in the in-text citation. Place a comma between the year and page number/s.

Example - in text citation

... on the album Delicate Sound of Thunder (Pink Floyd 1998).

Pink Floyd (1998) demonstrates this effect by ....

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Composer/Performer. Year. Title of Recording. Label & Publisher number, format.

Example - reference list

Pink Floyd. 1998. Delicate Sound of Thunder. CBS 4631612, compact disc.

Style notes for this reference type

• See Manual 15.57 and Turabian 19.10.3.4
• Italicise the official title of the album, but individual track titles should be included in quotation marks (Manual 8.197).
• If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
• Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
• For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalog or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
• Sound recordings should be grouped under an appropriate subheading in the bibliography (see Chicago Manual, chapter 14.263 and 14.63).

Example - in text citation

Glass (2018) employs the technique....

… when used in this way (Glass 2018).

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Composer/Performer. Year. Title of Recording. Label & Publisher number, format. Source of file/URL.

Example - reference list

Glass, Philip. 2018. The Hours/Distant Figure. Anton Batagov (piano). Orange Mountain Music, MP3 audio. iTunes.

Style notes for this reference type

• See Manual 15.57 and Turabian 19.10.3.4.
• Italicise the official title of the album, but individual track titles should be included in quotation marks (Manual 8.197).
• If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
• Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
• Include the name of the download service as part of the citation. If a separate URL can be determined from the source, include that at the end.
• For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalogue or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
• Sound recordings should be grouped under an appropriate subheading in the bibliography (see Chicago Manual, chapter 14.263 and 14.63).
• For digital reissues, include the date of the original recording and the reissue date as well. See Manual 15.57.

Example - in text citation

... on the album Kind of Blue (Davis 1959).

...Williams' use of the Eb clarinet in the soundtrack to Star Wars (2004).

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Composer/Performer. Year. “Track Title”. Track number on Title of Recording. Label & Publisher number, streaming service. URL (if available).

Example - reference list

Davis, Miles. 1959. “So What”. Track 1 on Kind of Blue. Columbia CL 1355, Spotify. 
https://open.spotify.com/track/4vLYewWIvqHfKtJDk8c8tq.

Williams, John. Star Wars, Episode IV, "A New Hope" (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack). 2004. London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by John Williams. Sony Classical 8279692795021, Naxos Music Library.

Style notes for this reference type

• See Manual 15.57 and Turabian 19.10.3.4.
• Italicise the official title of the album, but individual track titles should be included in quotation marks (Manual 8.197).
• If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
• Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
• Include the name of the streaming service as part of the citation. If a separate URL can be determined from the source, include that at the end.
• For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalogue or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
• Sound recordings should be grouped under an appropriate subheading in the bibliography (see Chicago Manual, chapter 14.263 and 14.63).
• For digital reissues, include the date of the original recording and the reissue date as well. See Manual 15.57.

Example - in text citation

In preparing for her interview with Meg Mac (Roots ‘N All 2018) …

Joel Carnegie (2018) prepares by…

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Title. Year. "Title of segment." Presenter. Aired date, on Network.

OR

Title. Year. Interview subject, interview by Host. Date of publication or access, URL.

Example - reference list

Music in Time. 2018. "Federation." Joel Carnegie. Aired November 26, 2018. ABC Classic FM.

OR

Roots 'N All. 2018.  Meg Mac, interview by Nkechi Anele. April 16, 2018. https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/roots-n-all/megmac-asos-extend-iv/9671950.

Style notes for this reference type

• See Manual 14.261 and 14.265. See also Turabian 17.8.3.2.
• The order of the citation elements may depend on the nature of the resource and on what the focus of the citation is (i.e. you may cite the host's name first if their work is your primary focus).
• Any facts relevant to identifying the item should be included (i.e. additional writers, actors, producers). See above links for examples.
• Segment titles should appear in quotation marks. Names of interview subjects should just appear in roman text.
• Reference list entries are usually listed by title (see Turabian 17.8.3.2).
• For recordings accessed online, if there is no date of production or broadcast provided, you should include an access date prior to the URL (Manual 14.12).

Example - in text citation

Fidler and Connolly (2018) discuss the relevance of ...

OR

... is important when considering the elements of sound design in context (Mars 2015).

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Surname of host, First name. Year. "Title of Episode". Date posted/broadcast. In Title of Podcast. Additional Information. Podcast, MP3 audio, duration. URL/source of download.

Example - reference list

Fidler, Richard. 2018. "Robert Connolly's Audacious Film Adaptation of Tim Winton's 'The Turning'." September 20, 2018. In Conversations. Interview by Richard Fidler. Podcast, MP3 audio, 50:55. https://www.abc.net.au/radio/programs/conversations/robert-connollys-audacious-film-adaption-of-tim-wintons-the-turn/7755452.

OR

Mars, Roman. 2015. "All In Your Head." June 10, 2015. In 99% Invisible. Episode produced by Hrishikesh Hirway. Podcast, MP3 audio, 36:34. iTunes.

Style notes for this reference type

• See Manual 15.57, 14.267 and Turabian 19.10.3.3.
• If relevant, you may include the time at which the cited material appears in the in text citation (ie. Mars 2015, 2:37).
• A podcast or series title should be italicised. An individual podcast episode should be placed in quotation marks (see Manual 8.189)
• Use a permanent URL wherever available, otherwise list the source of the download.
• If no date can be determined from the source, include an access date.
• If the material is a recording of a performance, or is a digitised version of pre-existing material, you should also include information about the original source. The order of these entries may depend on the information available.
• Include the creator's name exactly as given, even if it is not their real name. A real name may be included in brackets if desirable. Where actual names are used, invert the names of the first named person only in reference list.
• Different sources will provide more or less information about the item. Any facts relevant to identifying the item should be included, for example the name of a YouTube channel or where and when it was recorded.

Musical scores are not specifically discussed in the manual in relation to author-date citations, however it does mention that they should generally be treated as books. Our librarians suggest the following, however we advise that you check with your subject guideline or tutor for recommended format.

For more information refer to Chicago Manual of Style (14.255) or Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations - eighth edition (19.10.4.3).

Example - in text citation

... the treatment of the melody (Mussorgsky 1939) …

Frasch (2011) prepares us for the climax of her work by…

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Composer (Surname, First name). Year. Title of Work. Edited by Editor. Place of publication: Publisher. URL/DOI/Database name.

Example - reference list

Mussorgsky, Modest. 1939. "Reverie" in Complete Collected Works. Edited by Pavel Lamm. Moscow: Muzgiz. https://imslp.org/wiki/Reverie_(Mussorgsky%2C_Modest).

OR

Frasch, Heather. 2011. Collage. Paris: BabelScores. BabelScores Contemporary Music Online.

Style notes for this reference type

• Online music scores are treated in the same way as electronic books. The URL/DOI should be the last part of the full citation. See Manual 14.159, 14.160 and 14.161.
• Many musical works are known by their generic names, such as 'Symphony no. 1' or 'Sonata in A major', while some have descriptive or popular names (such as 'Eroica' or Danse Macabre). See Manual 8.194, 8.195 and Turabian 22.3.2 for guidance on whether titles should be italicised, in quotation marks or neither.
• Sometimes a suitable URL is not available, or is only for subscribers of the database. In these cases it is appropriate to just include the database name (i.e. BabelScores) (Manual 14.161).
• Include an editor's name wherever possible. This helps identify particular versions of a work.
• Any facts relevant to identifying the item should be included. It is not appropriate to just include the URL.
• DOI stands for 'digital object identifier' and provides a permanent and stable link to a resource. Use this in place of a URL where it exists.
• If no date can be determined from the source, include the date the material was last accessed.

Musical examples may be included to support a point in your essay. They must be incorporated into the text and include:

1. An example number,
2. A caption identifying where it is from, and
3. An accompanying reference list entry (and in-text citation as appropriate) indicating where the excerpt has been taken from.

All examples must include clefs, key and time signatures, instrumentation and bar numbers.

Format for Caption

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Captions are generally placed above the example rather than below. See Figure 3.5 in the Chicago Manual for an example.

Example [number]. Composer Surname, “Title of individual piece or section”, from Title of Work, Bar numbers of excerpt.

Example - caption

Example 5. Debussy, “Prelude III”, from Preludes for Piano: Book 1, Bars 1-4.

OR

Example 8. Lim, Anactoria: For Six Percussionists, Bars 7-8.

Examples as they would appear in the text

Example - in-text citation

It is appropriate to include an in-text citation in your text wherever you refer to a musical example.

Example 5 shows this in the first four bars of Debussy’s “Prelude III” (1969).

OR

Debussy (1969) shows this in the first four bars of “Prelude III” (see Example 5).

OR

This technique can be seen in Example 7 (Lim, 1998).

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

Each musical example must have an accompanying reference list entry indicating where the example was taken from.

Composer Surname, First name. Year of publication. Title of volume or work. Edited by Editor name. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example - reference list

Debussy, Claude. 1969. Preludes for Piano: Book 1. Edited by Roy Shepherd. Melbourne: Allans Music Australia.

OR

Lim, Liza. 1998. Anactoria: For Six Percussionists. Milan, Italy: Ricordi.

Style notes for this reference type

• Published musical scores are treated in the same way you would treat a book. See Manual 14.255.
• Where possible, you should take examples from the complete scores or collected editions. If you use an example from a secondary source (ie. from another article or book), you should include the secondary source in your citations and reference list.
• Captions should be placed above the musical example and include an example or figure number.
• Examples should be discussed within the text and be referred to by their number.
• Examples should be placed as closely as possible to the paragraph in which they are discussed.
• More information on how to incorporate music examples into your writing can be found in the Incorporating Music Examples resource form Academic Skills.

The citation of liner notes accompanying audio recordings is not dealt with comprehensively in the Chicago Manual of Style, apart from a brief note in the Q&A section. The following guidance incorporates this advice but also includes some interpretation based on examples provided for sound recordings and supplementary information.

Example - in text citation

Discussing the technique employed (Cairns 2019)...

In the liner notes to their album The Gospel Project (Idea of North, 2006)...

Format for reference list

Elements, punctuation & capitalisation

No author

Composer/Performer. Year. Title of recording. Label & publisher number. Format. Liner notes.

With an author

Author (surname, given name). Year. [Liner notes to] Composer/Performer. Title of recording. Label & publisher number. Format.

Example - reference list

No author

Idea of North. 2006. The Gospel Project. Magnetic Records 934 128-4. Compact disc. Liner notes.

With an author

Cairns, David. 2019. Liner notes to Hector Berlioz. The Complete Works. Warner Classics 190295519414. Compact disc.

Style notes for this reference type

• See this brief note in the Chicago Manual Q&A section, and Manual 14.263. Please check with your lecturer if you are unsure of how to deal with citation of liner notes.
• Where liner notes are unsigned (no attributed author), simply include 'Liner notes' at the end of the citation. Where there is a named author, you may cite them by the name of the author.
• If the performer or conductor (or similar) is more relevant than the composer, they may be listed first.
• Include any information about the work that is relevant, including performers, conductors, performance dates, medium and publisher details.
• For the date, include the date of the recording, the copyright date or published date included with the recording. If a date cannot be found consult a library catalog or other resource; citations without a date are generally unacceptable. If no date can be found, use “n.d.” (for no date).
• If the notes are titled, include the title in quotation marks after the author's name.
• Publisher numbers can be found on the CD liner notes or track listing.